Men Feeding Off Each Other Seed

The curation of this content is at the discretion of the author, and not necessarily reflective of the views of Encyclopaedia Britannica or its editorial staff. For the most accurate and up-to-date information, consult individual encyclopedia entries about the topics.

Dandelion with seeds blowing in the wind. Seed dispersion. — © Brian Jackson/Fotolia

It's tough for a little seed to make it in the big world. Not only must a seed land in a suitable place to grow, but it must also compete with existing plants for water, nutrients, and sunlight. Rough! Given that both the parent plant and its offspring are usually at a disadvantage if they must contend with each other for these resources, evolution has shaped a number of ingenious adaptations for plants to disperse their seeds and fruits. Read on to learn about some of the strategies flowering plants employ to get their progeny to new places.

Out to Sea

mangrove propaguleBrian Gratwicke

Coastal plants are generally very tolerant of salt water, and some are adapted to utilizing their watery habitat as a means of moving their seeds. The iconic coconut is perhaps the most-famous botanical seafarer. The thick floating fruits are impermeable to water and are filled with nutrients to keep the embryo alive for months at sea. As a result, the plants have successfully colonized tropical islands around the world. Similarly, certain mangrove species produce hardy propagules that can survive for up to a year in salt water. These long narrow structures float upright and root rapidly when they encounter a suitable substrate, allowing mangroves to shape shoreline ecosystems worldwide. Several freshwater plants, including the lotus, employ similar strategies and have long dormancies that allow them to wait until conditions are favorable to sprout.
Explosive!

squirting cucumber© TETYANA/stock.adobe.com

Incredibly, a number of plant species utilize explosive force to fling their seeds away. Many mistletoes have explosive fruits with sticky seeds to (hopefully) propel their parasitic offspring high into neighboring trees. The sandbox tree, native to tropical America, has exploding capsules that can launch seeds up to 100 meters (330 feet) away with speeds of up to 70 meters per second (160 mph)! People have been injured by the force of those seeds, and the sound of the explosion can be heard echoing through the forest. Some types of exploding fruits, such as the squirting cucumber, utilize built-up water pressure to expel the seeds, while others, such as certain violets, employ the tension from the drying fruits to fling their offspring away.
Digested

Bohemian waxwing© Ornitolog82/Fotolia

As evidenced by the plethora of tasty fruits in existence, many plants rely on being eaten as a means to move their seeds about. For some, the strategy is simply to get an animal to eat the fruit and drop the seed directly (or for it to pass through a digestive tract unscathed). But certain other seeds actually require digestion in order to sprout. The hard seeds of blackberries, for example, must be abraded in a bird's gizzard in order to break dormancy. Stomach acids and digestive enzymes wear down the hard seed coats in cherries and serve to make the seeds more permeable to water. And, of course, being deposited in a steamy pile of fertilizer never hurt a seed's odds of a good start!
Fur and Feathers

cockleburRobert H. Mohlenbrock/U.S. Department of Agriculture, NRCS PLANTS Database

Some seeds and fruits are adapted to stick to the fur or feathers (or clothing!) of unsuspecting animals; when the animal finally frees itself of its clingy passenger, the seed/fruit is usually far away from where it started. These tenacious structures typically feature hooks, barbs, spines, or even mucilage to attach to a passing animal. While most of these are nothing more than irksome, some, such as foxtails, can get trapped in an animal's ears or nose and injure the poor creature. Burdock, with its spiky hooked fruits, is said to have been the inspiration for Velcro!
Fly Away

Javan cucumber seedScott Zona

Equipped with parachutes or wings, gliders, or helicopters, a diverse group of plants have adaptations for wind dispersal. For example, each tiny dandelion fruit has a feathery "pappus" to help it catch a breeze (or a dreamer's wish). Maple "whirlybirds" are winged fruits called samaras that spin their way to a new location. Some seeds, like those of the jacaranda, are "flutterers" and have papery edges to help them disperse. One of the most-amazing examples of wind dispersal is seen in the Javan cucumber, whose seeds are borne in translucent aerodynamic gliders that can be 12 cm (about 5 inches) across!
Fishy?!

© Bryan Parsley/Tony Stone Images

Most people don't think much about fish-plant interactions, but pacu fish (yes, the ones with the human-looking teeth) play an important role in seed dispersal. The largest freshwater wetlands in the world are found in Brazil's Pantanal, and the area becomes inundated with seasonal floods at a time when many plants are releasing their fruits. The pacu fish swim throughout the flooded lands, where they happily munch on the bountiful fruit and defecate the intact seeds. One fish was caught with 141 seeds in its system! It is thought that at least one plant species, the tucum palm, relies exclusively on pacu for seed dispersal. Sadly, overfishing in this unique ecosystem is a major threat to both the fish and the plants that rely on it.
Buried Alive

chestnut oakMwanner

Some plants have coevolved with animals in such a way that their seeds are collected and helpfully buried in a clever symbiosis. Squirrels famously misplace their buried caches of acorns, which then have an excellent chance of germinating. Interestingly, studies have shown that even half-eaten acorns can still sprout if the embryo inside is undamaged, meaning that squirrels unwittingly disperse more seeds than just those in their forgotten stores. Other seeds have fleshy structures called elaiosomes that specifically attract (and feed) ants, which take the seeds to their nests. Harvester ants and other species remove the tasty elaiosomes and dispose of the unwanted seeds in their dark fertile waste chambers—perfect for an embryonic plant! Perhaps the most-incredible example of burial is seen in the relationship between dung beetles and Ceratocaryum argenteum, a grassy species. The seeds of this plant use "fecal mimicry" to trick the poor beetles into thinking they are lovely balls of dung in which to lay their eggs. The beetles roll the seeds away and bury them but get nothing in return.